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Abstract The heaviest elements in the universe are synthesized through rapid neutron capture (r-process) in extremely neutron-rich outflows. Neutron star mergers were established as an importantr-process source through the multimessenger observation of GW170817. Collapsars were also proposed as a potentially major source of heavy elements; however, this is difficult to probe through optical observations due to contamination by other emission mechanisms. Here we present observational constraints onr-process nucleosynthesis by collapsars based on radio follow-up observations of nearby long gamma-ray bursts (GRBs). We make the hypothesis that late-time radio emission arises from the collapsar wind ejecta responsible for forgingr-process elements, and consider the constraints that can be set on this scenario using radio observations of a sample of Swift/Burst Alert Telescope GRBs located within 2 Gpc. No radio counterpart was identified in excess of the radio afterglow of the GRBs in our sample. This gives the strictest limit to the collapsarr-process contribution of ≲0.2M_⊙for GRB 060505 and GRB 05826, under the models we considered. Our results additionally constrain energy injection by a long-lived neutron star remnant in some of the considered GRBs. While our results are in tension with collapsars being the majority ofr-process production sites, the ejecta mass and velocity profile of collapsar winds, and the emission parameters, are not yet well modeled. As such, our results are currently subject to large uncertainties, but further theoretical work could greatly improve them. 

Abstract On 11 September 2021, two small thunderstorms developed over the Telescope Array Surface Detector (TASD) that produced an unprecedented number of six downward terrestrial gamma ray flashes (TGFs) within one‐hour timeframe. The TGFs occurred during the initial stage of negative cloud‐to‐ground flashes whose return strokes had increasingly large peak currents up to 223 kA, 147 GeV energy deposit in up to 25 1.2 km‐spaced surface detectors, and intermittent bursts of gamma‐rays with total durations up to 717 s. The analyses are based on observations recorded by the TASD network, complemented by data from a 3D lightning mapping array, broadband VHF interferometer, fast electric field change sensor, high‐speed video camera, and the National Lightning Detection Network. The TGFs of the final two flashes had gamma fluences of and 8, logarithmically bridging the gap between previous TASD and satellite‐based detections. The observations further emphasize the similarity between upward and downward TGF varieties, suggesting a common mechanism for their production. 

Abstract Optical emissions associated with Terrestrial Gamma ray Flashes (TGFs) have recently become important subjects in space‐based and ground‐based observations as they can help us understand how TGFs are produced during thunderstorms. In this paper, we present the first time‐resolved leader spectra of the optical component associated with a downward TGF. The TGF was observed by the Telescope Array Surface Detector (TASD) simultaneously with other lightning detectors, including a Lightning Mapping Array (LMA), an INTerFerometer (INTF), a Fast Antenna (FA), and a spectroscopic system. The spectroscopic system recorded leader spectra at 29,900 frames per second (33.44 s time resolution), covering a spectral range from 400 to 900 nm, with 2.1 nm per pixel. The recordings of the leader spectra began 11.7 ms before the kA return stroke and at a height of 2.37 km above the ground. These spectra reveal that optical emissions of singly ionized nitrogen and oxygen occur between 167 s before and 267 s after the TGF detection, while optical emissions of neutrals (H I, 656 nm; N I, 744 nm, and O I, 777 nm) occur right at the moment of the detection. The time‐dependent spectra reveal differences in the optical emissions of lightning leaders with and without downward TGFs.